Higher Engineering & Technology Activities Predicts Slightly Lower Distress for Population

Higher Engineering & Technology Activities Predicts Slightly Lower Distress for Population

Contents

Variables

A
Engineering & Technology Activities 156
A
Distress 1349

Categories

A
Activities 1637
A
Emotions 2028

Actions

A
Join Study
A
Your Data

Tags

Medium Confidence
Very Weak Effect Size
Negative Relationship
Population Study
cause image gauge image effect image
Participants reported a 13.9% average decrease in Distress following above average Engineering & Technology Activities.

Abstract

Distress was generally 28.76% lower than average after 40 minutes of Engineering & Technology Activities per 7 days.

Aggregated data from 5 study participants suggests with a MEDIUM degree of confidence (p=0.121, 95% CI -0.846 to 0.591) that Engineering & Technology Activities has a weakly negative predictive relationship (R=-0.127) with Distress.

The highest quartile of Distress measurements were observed following an average 53 minutes Engineering & Technology Activities per day.

The lowest quartile of Distress measurements were observed following an average 53 minutes of Engineering & Technology Activities per day.

After an onset delay of 0 seconds, Distress is typically 18% lower than average over the 7 days following around 53 minutes of Engineering & Technology Activities Engineering & Technology Activities.

Keywords: Engineering & Technology Activities, Distress, N-of-1 trials, real-world evidence, causal inference, observational study

Preliminary: Based on 5 participants. Results may change as more data is collected.

Results

Primary Findings

Analysis of 168 paired observations from 5 participants revealed a substantial reduction in Distress following above-average Engineering & Technology Activities exposure.

-28.8%
Change from Baseline
Substantial effect on Distress
0.05
Predictor Impact Score
Insufficient evidence for causal relationship

Supporting Statistics

Medium
Confidence
-0.127
Correlation (r)
p = 0.111
Significance
z = 0.77
Effect Magnitude
φ = 1.00
Temporality

What This Means

When participants had above-average Engineering & Technology Activities:

  • Distress decreased by 28.8% on average
  • Temporal analysis supports Engineering & Technology Activities as the predictor (not the outcome)

Interpreting the Predictor Impact Score

The Predictor Impact Score (PIS) integrates multiple Bradford Hill causal criteria into a single metric. Use this guide to interpret the score:

PIS Range Interpretation Recommended Action
≥ 0.5 Strong evidence High priority for RCT validation
0.3 - 0.5 Moderate evidence Consider for experimental investigation
0.1 - 0.3 Weak evidence Monitor for additional data
< 0.1 Insufficient evidence Low priority; may be noise

Note: PIS is a prioritization heuristic, not proof of causation. High scores indicate relationships worth investigating, not confirmed causal effects. With only 5 participants, these scores are preliminary and will become more reliable as additional data is collected.

Optimal Daily Values

No clear dose-response relationship detected. The Engineering & Technology Activities values associated with high and low Distress are too similar to provide meaningful dosing guidance. This may indicate a threshold effect (any amount works equally well), no effect, or insufficient data variance. With more participants, a clearer pattern may emerge.

Population Correlation

Engineering & Technology Activities Distribution

Distress Distribution

Relationship Analysis

Statistical Summary

Relationship Statistics

Property Value
Cause Variable Name Engineering & Technology Activities
Effect Variable Name Distress
Sinn Predictive Coefficient 0.050127992348453
Confidence Level MEDIUM
Confidence Interval 0.71881573222616
Forward Pearson Predictive Coefficient -0.1274
Critical T Value 1.7756
Total Engineering & Technology Activities Over Previous 7 days Before ABOVE Average Distress 53 minutes
Total Engineering & Technology Activities Over Previous 7 days Before BELOW Average Distress 53 minutes
Duration of Action 7 days
Effect Size weakly negative
Number of Paired Measurements 168
Optimal Pearson Product 0.058237577216009
P Value 0.12117929999204
Statistical Significance 0.1108
Strength of Relationship 0.71881573222616
Study Type population
Analysis Performed At 2026-01-04
Number of Participants 5

Engineering & Technology Activities Info

Property Value
Variable Name Engineering & Technology Activities
Aggregation Method SUM
Analysis Performed At 2020-10-11
Duration of Action 7 days
Filling Value 0
Kurtosis 192.59552148544
Maximum Allowed Value 7 days
Mean 10 minutes
Median 1 seconds
Minimum Allowed Value 0 seconds
Number of Aggregate Predictors 13
Number of Aggregate Outcomes 143
Number of Measurements 10323
Number of Measurements (including those generated by tagged, joined, or child variables) 2174
Public true
Onset Delay 0 seconds
Standard Deviation 0.6594650087989
Unit Hours
User Variables 54
Variable Category Activities
Variable ID 5956914
Variance 2.3524248751664

Distress Info

Property Value
Variable Name Distress
Aggregation Method MEAN
Analysis Performed At 2020-09-17
Duration of Action 24 hours
Kurtosis 2.8522483497534
Maximum Allowed Value 5 out of 5
Mean 2.4777342286981 out of 5
Median 2.4229733332357 out of 5
Minimum Allowed Value 1 out of 5
Number of Aggregate Predictors 1209
Number of Aggregate Outcomes 140
Number of Measurements 33096
Number of Measurements (including those generated by tagged, joined, or child variables) 32968
Public true
Onset Delay 0 seconds
Standard Deviation 0.53719668856315
Unit 1 to 5 Rating
User Variables 1486
UPC 647297398818
Variable Category Emotions
Variable ID 1305
Variance 0.6312526863217

Introduction

Background

Engineering & Technology Activities (Activities) and Distress (Emotions) are both important factors in understanding human health and well-being. This study investigates the relationship between these two variables using real-world observational data.

Traditional randomized controlled trials (RCTs), while the gold standard for causal inference, are often impractical, expensive, or unethical for studying many health relationships. Aggregated N-of-1 observational studies offer a complementary approach that leverages within-subject comparisons across large populations to identify meaningful patterns.

Research Question

Do Engineering & Technology Activities affect Distress?

Additionally, we seek to determine:

  1. What is the direction and magnitude of any effect?
  2. How confident can we be in this relationship based on the available data?
  3. What are the optimal levels of Engineering & Technology Activities for maximizing Distress?

Study Objective

The objective of this study is to determine the nature of the relationship (if any) between Engineering & Technology Activities and Distress. Additionally, we attempt to determine the Engineering & Technology Activities values most likely to produce optimal Distress values.

Study Overview

This is a population-level observational study using aggregated N-of-1 methodology. By aggregating individual N-of-1 experiments, we can identify population-level patterns while accounting for the substantial individual variation that exists in most health relationships. Effect sizes are reported as percent change from baseline, enabling intuitive interpretation and comparison across different measures.

Full Methodology: Framework for Real-World Evidence-Based Pharmacovigilance: Aggregated N-of-1 Trials for Quantifying Treatment Effects

Discussion

Interpretation of Findings

Participants experienced a 28.8% reduction in Distress following above-average Engineering & Technology Activities exposure. The Predictor Impact Score (PIS) of 0.05 indicates insufficient evidence for a causal relationship.

Statistical Significance

Using a two-tailed t-test with alpha = 0.05, it was determined that the change in Distress is statistically significant at a 95% confidence interval. The p-value of 0.1108 indicates there is less than a 11.08% probability that this result occurred by chance.

After treatment, a 13.9% decrease (-0.672 out of 5) from the mean baseline 2.15 out of 5 was observed. The relative standard deviation at baseline was 39.2%. The observed change was 0.76677 times the standard deviation.

A common rule of thumb considers a change greater than twice the baseline standard deviation on two separate pre-post experiments may be considered significant. This occurrence would have only a 5% likelihood of resulting from random fluctuation (a p-value < 0.05).

T-Test Details
Observed t-value: 2.051
Critical t-value: 1.776

Since t = 2.05 > 1.78, we reject the null hypothesis.

Biological Plausibility

A plausible bio-chemical mechanism between predictor and outcome is critical for interpreting observational findings. This is where human judgment excels beyond statistical analysis.

Community feedback on the biological plausibility of this relationship is still being collected. Consider the known mechanisms by which Engineering & Technology Activities might influence Distress.

Bradford Hill Criteria Assessment

The Bradford Hill criteria provide a framework for assessing causality in observational studies. Our methodology operationalizes six of the nine criteria through the Predictor Impact Score (PIS):

Criterion How Addressed Metric
Strength Effect size magnitude Percent change from baseline (Δ%), z-score
Consistency Cross-participant replication Number of users (N), number of pairs (n)
Temporality Predictor precedes outcome Temporality factor (φ), onset delay (δ > 0)
Biological Gradient Dose-response relationship Gradient coefficient (φgradient)
Plausibility Biological mechanism assessment Community votes on mechanism plausibility
Specificity Category appropriateness Interest factor (finterest)

Predictor Impact Score (PIS)

The PIS integrates multiple Bradford Hill criteria into a composite metric quantifying how reliably a predictor affects an outcome. Higher scores indicate stronger evidence:

Population-Level PIS:

$$\text{PIS}_{\text{agg}} = |r_{\text{forward}}| \cdot w \cdot \phi_{\text{users}} \cdot \phi_{\text{pairs}} \cdot \phi_{\text{change}} \cdot \phi_{\text{gradient}}$$

Where φ-factors are saturation functions approaching 1 as evidence accumulates:

  • φusers = 1 - e-N/10 (user saturation)
  • φpairs = 1 - e-n/nsig (pair saturation)
  • φchange = 1 - e-Δspread/Δsig (effect spread saturation)
  • w = weighted average of plausibility votes

Temporality Assessment

We assess evidence for correct causal direction using the temporality factor:

$$\phi_{\text{temporal}} = \frac{|r_{\text{forward}}|}{|r_{\text{forward}}| + |r_{\text{reverse}}|}$$

Values approaching 1 indicate the predictor precedes the outcome (supporting causation); values near 0.5 suggest ambiguous directionality; values near 0 suggest reverse causation or confounding by indication.

Limitations

As with any observational study, correlation does not prove causation. Key limitations include:

  • Unmeasured confounders: Variables not tracked may influence results
  • Self-selection bias: Health trackers may differ from the general population
  • Measurement error: Self-reported data may contain recall bias
  • Confounding by indication: Sicker individuals may use more treatments

However, within-subject comparison and temporal precedence analysis partially mitigate these limitations. If the relationship is merely coincidental, as participants independently modify their Engineering & Technology Activities values, the observed strength will decline over time. Spurious correlations naturally dissipate as more data is collected.

Future Directions

Future research should examine:

  • Subgroup analyses to identify individual differences in response
  • Potential confounders and mediators of the observed relationship
  • Optimal dosing and timing for Engineering & Technology Activities
  • Confirmation through prospective or randomized designs
  • Biological mechanisms underlying the observed effects

Conclusion

📊 Preliminary Findings: With 5 participants, these results are based on limited data. Effect sizes and confidence will improve as more participants contribute data. Consider these findings directional rather than definitive.

Above-average Engineering & Technology Activities was associated with a 28.8% reduction in Distress—a substantial effect. The Predictor Impact Score of 0.05 indicates this relationship is requiring additional data before conclusions.

Bottom Line: Based on a PIS of 0.05 and a 28.8% effect size, this relationship currently lacks sufficient evidence. Continue monitoring as more data becomes available. Note: These conclusions may strengthen or change direction as more data is collected.

These findings contribute to our understanding of how Engineering & Technology Activities may influence Distress in real-world conditions. While preliminary, these results may inform future research directions. As more participants contribute data, the reliability and precision of these findings will improve substantially.

Help End Unnecessary Suffering

Current clinical trials are 82x more expensive than necessary and take 17 years to bring treatments to market. Pragmatic trials integrated into standard healthcare could reduce costs from $41,000 to $500 per participant and compress timelines to just 2 years. Learn how redirecting just 1% of global military spending could accelerate cures for the 2 billion people suffering from treatable diseases.

Make Suffering Optional

Methods

Study Design

This study is based on data donated by 5 participants. Thus, the study design is equivalent to the aggregation of 5 separate n=1 observational natural experiments.

This within-subject design is powerful because it controls for all stable individual characteristics (genetics, baseline health status, socioeconomic factors) that might otherwise confound the relationship between variables.

Data Analysis

Temporal Assumptions

The analysis incorporates temporal assumptions about the relationship between variables:

  • Onset Delay: It was assumed that 0 seconds would pass before a change in Engineering & Technology Activities would produce an observable change in Distress.
  • Duration of Action: It was assumed that Engineering & Technology Activities could produce an observable change in Distress for as much as 7 days after the stimulus event.

Statistical Methods

For each participant, we calculated the Pearson correlation coefficient between Engineering & Technology Activities values and subsequent Distress values. Individual correlations were then aggregated using Fisher's z-transformation to produce a population-level estimate:

Individual Correlation:

$$r_i = \frac{\sum(x_{ij} - \bar{x}_i)(y_{ij} - \bar{y}_i)}{\sqrt{\sum(x_{ij} - \bar{x}_i)^2 \sum(y_{ij} - \bar{y}_i)^2}}$$

Fisher's Z-Transformation:

$$z_i = \frac{1}{2} \ln\left(\frac{1 + r_i}{1 - r_i}\right)$$

Aggregated Correlation:

$$\bar{r} = \tanh(\bar{z}) \quad \text{where} \quad \bar{z} = \frac{1}{N}\sum_{i=1}^{N} z_i$$

Effect Size Calculation

Effect sizes are reported as percent change from baseline. For each participant, we compare the outcome following above-average predictor values to the overall baseline outcome:

$$\Delta\%_{\text{baseline}} = \frac{\bar{O}_{\text{follow-up}} - \bar{O}_{\text{baseline}}}{\bar{O}_{\text{baseline}}} \times 100$$

Effect Magnitude (Z-Score)

To assess effect magnitude relative to natural variability, we calculate the z-score:

$$z = \frac{|\Delta\%_{\text{baseline}}|}{\text{RSD}_{\text{baseline}}}$$

where RSDbaseline is the relative standard deviation of outcome during baseline period

A z-score > 2 indicates statistical significance (p < 0.05), meaning the observed change exceeds typical baseline fluctuation and is unlikely due to random variation.

Statistical Significance

Correlation significance is assessed using a two-tailed t-test:

$$t = \frac{r\sqrt{n-2}}{\sqrt{1-r^2}}$$

We reject the null hypothesis (ρ = 0) at α = 0.05 when |t| exceeds the critical value, providing statistical evidence that the observed relationship is not due to chance.

Data Sources

Engineering & Technology Activities data was primarily collected using RescueTime. Detailed reports show which applications and websites you spent time on. Activities are automatically grouped into pre-defined categories with built-in productivity scores covering thousands of websites and applications. You can customize categories and productivity scores to meet your needs.

Distress data was primarily collected using QuantiModo. QuantiModo allows you to easily track mood, symptoms, or any outcome you want to optimize in a fraction of a second. You can also import your data from over 30 other apps and devices. QuantiModo then analyzes your data to identify which hidden factors are most likely to be influencing your mood or symptoms.

Data Quality

Data quality measures were applied to ensure reliable results:

  • Minimum Data Requirement: Only participants with sufficient paired observations were included in the analysis.
  • Outlier Handling: Extreme values were winsorized to reduce the influence of measurement errors.
  • Missing Data: Days with missing values were handled using appropriate filling strategies based on the variable type.
  • Test User Exclusion: Test accounts and invalid users were excluded from all analyses.

Principal Investigator

Program & Methods

Mike P. Sinn
Sinn, M. P.

Designed and implemented data collection, aggregation, causal inference pipeline, and automated study generation framework. Developed the Predictor Impact Score methodology operationalizing Bradford Hill criteria for ranking causal relationships in observational data. When he tells people this at parties, they usually say they have to go check on their car.

Individual study outputs are automated, reproducible, and open to external audit. (Which I would seriously recommend.)

Contact

Cite This Study

APA Format
Sinn, M. P. (2026). Causal Analysis: Does Engineering & Technology Activities Affect Distress?. The Journal of Citizen Science. https://studies.crowdsourcingcures.org/study/cause-5956914-effect-1305-population-study
BibTeX 
@misc{sinn_cause_5956914_effect_1305_population_study_2026,
  author = {Sinn, Mike P.},
  title = {Causal Analysis: Does Engineering & Technology Activities Affect Distress?},
  year = {2026},
  publisher = {The Journal of Citizen Science},
  url = {https://studies.crowdsourcingcures.org/study/cause-5956914-effect-1305-population-study},
  note = {Accessed: January 9, 2026}
}
Chicago/Turabian
Sinn, Mike P. "Causal Analysis: Does Engineering & Technology Activities Affect Distress?." The Journal of Citizen Science. Accessed January 9, 2026. https://studies.crowdsourcingcures.org/study/cause-5956914-effect-1305-population-study.
Harvard
Sinn, M.P., 2026. Causal Analysis: Does Engineering & Technology Activities Affect Distress?. [Aggregated N-of-1 Study] The Journal of Citizen Science. Available at: https://studies.crowdsourcingcures.org/study/cause-5956914-effect-1305-population-study [Accessed January 9, 2026].

Study Type: Aggregated N-of-1 Observational Mega-Study
Evidence Level: Level II (Real-World Evidence)
Methodology: Bradford Hill Criteria with Predictor Impact Score (PIS)

References

This framework was originally developed in 2013 based on the Bradford Hill criteria. Subsequent literature has independently validated similar approaches to causal inference from observational data:

  1. Hill, A.B. (1965). The environment and disease: association or causation? Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 58(5), 295-300. [Bradford Hill criteria]
  2. Lillie, E.O., et al. (2011). The n-of-1 clinical trial: the ultimate strategy for individualizing medicine? Personalized Medicine, 8(2), 161-173. [N-of-1 methodology]
  3. Pearl, J. (2009). Causality: Models, Reasoning, and Inference . Cambridge University Press. [Causal inference]
  4. Hernán, M.A., & Robins, J.M. (2020). Causal Inference: What If . Chapman & Hall/CRC. [Free textbook]
  5. FDA (2018). Framework for FDA's Real-World Evidence Program . U.S. Food and Drug Administration. [Regulatory context]
  6. Duan, N., et al. (2013). Single-patient (n-of-1) trials: a pragmatic clinical decision methodology . Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 66(8), S21-S28.
  7. Platt, R., et al. (2018). The FDA Sentinel Initiative—an evolving national resource . New England Journal of Medicine, 379(22), 2091-2093.

This information is for research and educational purposes only, not medical advice. Consult a healthcare provider before making health decisions. Terms of Service

LinkedIn Reddit